What Is Colorectal Cancer?
Colorectal cancer starts in the colon or the rectum. These cancers can also be called colon cancer or rectal cancer, depending on where they start. Colon cancer and rectal cancer are often grouped because they have many features in common.
The colon and rectum
To understand colorectal cancer, it helps to know about the normal structure and function of the colon and rectum.
The colon and rectum make up the large intestine (or large bowel), which is part of the digestive system, also called the gastrointestinal (GI) system (see illustration below).
Most of the large intestine comprises the colon, a muscular tube about 5 feet (1.5 meters) long. The parts of the colon are named by which way the food is traveling through them.
- The first section is called the ascending colon. It starts with a pouch called the cecum, where undigested food comes in from the small intestine. It continues upward on the right side of the abdomen (belly).
- The second section is called the transverse colon. It goes across the body from the right to the left side.
- The third section is called the descending colon because it descends (travels down) on the left side.
- The fourth section is called the sigmoid colon because of its “S” shape. The sigmoid colon joins the rectum, which then connects to the anus.
The ascending and transverse sections together are called the proximal colon. The descending and sigmoid colon are called the distal colon.
How do the colon and rectum work?
The colon absorbs water and salt from the remaining food matter after it goes through the small intestine (small bowel). The waste matter that’s left after going through the colon goes into the rectum, the final 6 inches (15cm) of the digestive system. It’s stored there until it passes through the anus. Ring-shaped muscles (also called sphincters) around the anus keep stool from coming out until they relax during a bowel movement.
How does colorectal cancer start?
Polyps in the colon or rectum
Most colorectal cancers start as a growth on the inner lining of the colon or rectum. These growths are called polyps.
Polyps are quite common, especially as you get older. Most polyps are benign, or noncancerous. Some types of polyps can change into cancer over time (usually over many years). The chance of a polyp turning into cancer depends on the type of polyp it is. There are different types of polyps.
- Adenomatous polyps (adenomas): These polyps sometimes change into cancer. Because of this, adenomas are called a precancerous condition. The 3 types of adenomas are tubular, villous, and tubulovillous. Tubular adenomas are the most common type of adenomatous polyps. Villous adenomas are the least common type of adenomatous polyps, but are more likely to change into cancer.
- Hyperplastic polyps and inflammatory polyps: These polyps are more common, but in general they are not precancerous. Some people with large (more than 1cm) hyperplastic polyps might need colorectal cancer screening with colonoscopy more often.
- Sessile serrated polyps (SSP) and traditional serrated adenomas (TSA): These polyps are often treated like adenomas because they have a higher risk of changing into cancer.
Other factors that can make a polyp more likely to contain cancer or increase someone’s risk of developing colorectal cancer include:
- Size: If a polyp larger than 1 cm
- Number: If more than 3 polyps are found
- Histology: If dysplasia is seen in the polyp. Dysplasia means that the cells look abnormal, but they haven’t yet become cancer.
How colorectal cancer spreads
If cancer forms in a polyp, it can grow into the wall of the colon or rectum over time. The wall of the colon and rectum is made up of many layers. Colorectal cancer starts in the innermost layer (the mucosa) and can grow outward through some or all of the other layers.
When cancer cells are in the wall, they can then grow into blood vessels or lymph vessels (tiny channels that carry away waste and fluid). From there, they can travel to nearby lymph nodes or distant body parts.
The stage (extent of spread) of a colorectal cancer depends on how deeply it grows into the wall and if it has spread outside the colon or rectum.
Types of cancer in the colon and rectum
Most colorectal cancers are adenocarcinomas. These cancers start in cells that make mucus to lubricate the inside of the colon and rectum. When doctors talk about colorectal cancer, they’re almost always talking about this type. Some subtypes of adenocarcinoma, such as signet ring and mucinous, may have a worse prognosis (outlook) than other subtypes of adenocarcinoma.
Other, much less common types of tumors can also start in the colon and rectum. These include:
- Carcinoid tumors. These start from special hormone-making cells in the intestine.
- Gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs) start from nerve cells in the wall of the gastrointestinal tract. Some are benign (not cancer). These tumors are most commonly found in the stomach and small intestine. They are not commonly found in the colon or rectum.
- Lymphomas are cancers of immune system cells. They mostly start in lymph nodes, but they can also start in the colon, rectum, or other organs.
- Sarcomas can start in blood vessels, muscle layers, or other connective tissues in the wall of the colon and rectum. Sarcomas of the colon or rectum are rare.
How common is colorectal cancer?
The American Cancer Society’s estimates for the number of colorectal cancers in the United States for 2025 are:
- About 107,320 new cases of colon cancer (54,510 in men and 52,810 in women)
- About 46,950 new cases of rectal cancer (27,950 in men and 19,000 in women)
The rate of people being diagnosed with colon or rectal cancer has dropped overall since the mid-1980s, mainly because more people are getting screened and changing their lifestyle-related risk factors. From 2012 to 2021, incidence rates dropped by about 1% each year. But this downward trend is mostly in older adults. In people younger than 50 years of age, rates have increased by 2.4% per year from 2012 to 2021.
Lifetime risk of colorectal cancer
Overall, the lifetime risk of developing colorectal cancer is about 1 in 24 for men and 1 in 26 for women. However, each person’s risk might be higher or lower than this, depending on their risk factors for colorectal cancer.
Deaths from colorectal cancer
In the United States, colorectal cancer is the third-leading cause of cancer-related deaths in men and the fourth leading cause in women, but it’s the second most common cause of cancer deaths when numbers for men and women are combined. It’s expected to cause about 52,900 deaths during 2025.
The death rate from colorectal cancer has been dropping in older adults for several decades. There are a number of likely reasons for this. One is that colorectal polyps are now being found more often by screening and removed before they can develop into cancers. Screening also results in many colorectal cancers being found earlier, when they are likely to be easier to treat. In addition, treatments for colorectal cancer have improved over the last few decades. In people under 55, however, death rates have been increasing about 1% per year since the mid-2000s.
What’s New in Colorectal Cancer Research?
Research in colorectal cancer continues to be very active. Scientists are looking for causes and ways to prevent colorectal cancer, better ways to find it early (when it’s small and easier to treat), and ways to improve treatments.
Reducing colorectal cancer risk
Many studies are looking to identify the causes of colorectal cancer. The hope is that this might lead to new ways to help prevent it.
Some studies are looking to see if certain types of diets, dietary supplements, or medicines can lower a person’s risk of colorectal cancer. For example, many studies have shown that aspirin and pain relievers like it might help lower the risk of colorectal cancer, but these drugs can have serious side effects. Researchers are now trying to figure out if the benefits might outweigh the risks for certain groups of people at high colorectal cancer risk.
Finding colorectal cancer early
Doctors are looking for better ways to find colorectal cancer early by studying new types of screening tests (like blood tests) and improving the ones already being used. Researchers are also trying to figure out if there’s any test or screening plan that clearly works best.
They’re also looking for ways to educate and encourage people to get the routine screening tests that are available today and known to help reduce the number of deaths from this cancer.
Testing colorectal cancer cells
Not all colorectal cancers are the same. Researchers are trying to identify some of the differences between colorectal cancers based on things like the gene or protein changes in the cancer cells. This might lead to better understanding of how colorectal cancer grows and spreads. It might also help determine which cancers are more likely to be helped by certain treatments, as well as which ones are more likely to come back after treatment.
Molecular tests to help plan treatment
In some colorectal cancers, the cancer cells have changes in certain genes or proteins that might affect how they grow, as well as how well they might respond to certain cancer medicines.
When colorectal cancer has been found, lab tests are routinely done on the cancer cells to look for certain gene or protein changes, which are sometimes referred to as biomarkers. The results of biomarker testing might affect a person’s treatment options by showing if certain medicines are (or are not) likely to be helpful. Several biomarkers are routinely tested for, and many others are being studied to see if they might help improve colorectal cancer treatment.
Tests to look for cancer cells or DNA in the blood
Researchers have found that the blood of people with colorectal cancer often contains cancer cells, as well as pieces of DNA from the cancer. Removing blood and testing it for cancer (cells or DNA) is sometimes referred to as a liquid biopsy.
Researchers are studying whether liquid biopsy samples can be tested for specific gene or protein changes to help guide treatment, in the same way that tumor samples are tested for these biomarkers. This type of testing might be useful in some situations because it is usually much easier to get a blood sample than to remove a piece of tumor for testing.
Testing the blood for tumor cells or DNA could have other uses as well. For example, some newer tests look for circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA) in a patient’s blood. This type of testing might be helpful in finding colon cancer, but usually if the cancer is already in late-stage. It might also be helpful in seeing if cancer cells are still present after surgery (and therefore more treatment might be needed) for early-stage disease. Research is under way to see how helpful these tests are. Some ctDNA tests are already available, although not all doctors agree on how useful they are at this time.
Researchers are also studying to see if ctDNA testing might be helpful after treatment is complete, to look for possible signs that the cancer has come back (recurred). The hope is that this type of testing might be able to detect a recurrence earlier than imaging tests (such as CT scans) or other tests could.
Treating colorectal cancer
Researchers are always looking for better ways to treat colorectal cancer.
Surgery
Surgeons continue to improve the operations used for colorectal cancers. Rectal cancer, surgery done through the anus without cutting the skin, is also being studied.
Organ preservation – keeping your body working the way it normally does – is another research goal. For instance, doctors are looking at the ideal timing of surgery after chemo is used to shrink a rectal tumor and how to know when they've got the best response in each patient. Research has shown that some people may not even need surgery if their rectal cancer had a great response to chemotherapy and chemoradiation (called Total Neoadjuvant Therapy). Data continue to be collected to better understand this treatment approach.
When colorectal cancer recurs (comes back), it often spreads to the peritoneum (the thin lining of the abdominal cavity and organs inside the abdomen). These cancers are hard to treat. Surgeons are studying a procedure called cytoreductive surgery (CRS) and hyperthermic intraperitoneal chemotherapy (HIPEC). First, surgery is done to remove as much of the cancer in the belly as possible (CRS). Then, while still in the operating room, the abdominal cavity is bathed in heated chemotherapy drugs (HIPEC). This puts the chemo right in contact with the cancer cells, and the heat is thought to help the drugs work better. Some patients are living longer with this type of treatment, but more studies are needed to know which patients it can help. This type of treatment also requires doctors and nurses with special training and specialized equipment, so it’s not widely available.
For colorectal cancer that has spread to the liver and can’t be removed by surgery, another procedure being studied is hepatic arterial infusion chemotherapy (HAIC). In this procedure, surgery is done to implant a pump or port near the liver (similar to a port for IV chemo but larger) that drains into to the hepatic artery, which is the blood vessel feeding most cancers in the liver. The doctor can then put chemo into the pump, which is released directly into the liver and helps kill the cancer cells. Often, HAIC is given along with systemic chemo (chemotherapy given through a vein or central venous catheter). More research is being done to find out which patients are the best candidates for this procedure. Currently it can only be done in experienced facilities.
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy is an important part of treatment for many people with colorectal cancer, and doctors are constantly trying to make it more effective and safer. Different approaches are being tested in clinical trials, including:
- Testing new chemo drugs or drugs that are already used against other cancers
- Looking for new ways to combine drugs already known to work against colorectal cancer to see if they work better together
- Studying the best ways to combine chemotherapy with radiation therapy, targeted therapies, and/or immunotherapy
- Studying the best ways to sequence the different types of therapies
Better ways to identify, prevent, and treat chemo side effects are other areas of research interest.
Targeted therapy
Targeted therapy drugs work differently from standard chemotherapy drugs. They affect specific parts of cancer cells that make them different from normal cells. Several targeted therapy drugs are already used to treat advanced colorectal cancer. Researchers are studying the best way to give these drugs, as well as looking for new drug targets.
Most advanced colorectal cancers that have spread are tested for DNA mutations (changes) in certain genes (or changes in the proteins they code for) to see if targeted drugs might be an option for treatment.
What Causes Colorectal Cancer?
Researchers have found several factors that can increase a person’s risk of colorectal cancer, but it’s not yet clear exactly how all of these factors might cause this cancer.
Gene changes that may lead to colorectal cancer
Cancer is caused by changes in the DNA inside our cells. DNA is the substance in our cells that makes up our genes, which control how our cells function. We usually look like our parents because they are the source of our DNA. But DNA affects more than just how we look.
Some genes help control when our cells grow, divide into new cells, and die:
- Certain genes that help cells grow, divide, and stay alive are called oncogenes.
- Genes that help keep cell division under control or instruct cells to die at the right time are called tumor suppressor genes.
Cancers can be caused by DNA mutations (changes) that turn on oncogenes or turn off tumor suppressor genes. This leads to cells growing out of control. Changes in many different genes are usually needed to cause colorectal cancer.
Inherited (germline) gene mutations
Some DNA mutations can be passed on in families and are found in all of a person’s cells. These are called inherited mutations. A very small portion of colorectal cancers are caused by inherited gene mutations. Many of these DNA changes and their effects on the growth of cells are now known. For example:
- Familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP), attenuated FAP (AFAP), and Gardner syndrome are caused by inherited changes in the APC gene. The APC gene is a tumor suppressor gene; it normally helps keep cell growth in check. In people with inherited changes in the APC gene, this “brake” on cell growth is turned off, causing hundreds of polyps to form in the colon. Over time, cancer will nearly always develop in one or more of these polyps.
- Lynch syndrome (hereditary non-polyposis colon cancer, or HNPCC) is caused by changes in genes that normally help a cell repair damaged DNA. A mutation in one of the DNA repair genes like MLH1, MSH2, MSH6, PMS2, and EPCAM can allow DNA errors to go unfixed. These errors will sometimes affect growth-regulating genes, which may lead to the development of cancer.
- Peutz-Jeghers syndrome is caused by inherited changes in the STK11 (LKB1) gene, a tumor suppressor gene.
- MUTYH-associated polyposis (MAP) is caused by mutations in the MUTYH gene, which impacts how the cell “proofreads” or checks the DNA and fixes errors when cells divide.
- Cystic fibrosis (CF) is caused by inherited mutations in the CFTR gene. Exactly how changes in this gene increase colorectal cancer risk isn’t yet clear.
Special genetic tests can find gene mutations linked to these inherited conditions. If you have a family history of colorectal polyps or cancer or other symptoms linked to one of these conditions, you may want to ask your doctor about genetic counseling and genetic testing.
The American Cancer Society recommends discussing genetic testing with a qualified cancer genetics professional before any genetic testing is done.
Acquired (somatic) gene mutations
Most gene mutations that lead to cancer are acquired or somatic mutations. They happen during a person’s lifetime and are not passed on to their children. These DNA changes only affect cells that come from the original mutated cell.
In most cases of colorectal cancer, the DNA mutations that lead to cancer are acquired during a person’s life rather than having been inherited. Certain risk factors probably play a role in causing these acquired mutations, but so far it’s not known what causes most of them.
There doesn’t seem to be a single genetic pathway to colorectal cancer that’s the same in all cases. In many cases, the first mutation occurs in the APC gene. This leads to an increased growth of colorectal cells because of the loss of this “brake” on cell growth. Further mutations may then occur in other genes, which can lead the cells to grow and spread uncontrollably. Other genes that aren’t known yet are probably involved as well.
Is genetic testing right for you?
Whether genetic testing is right for you will depend on your family history of colorectal cancer. Cancer in close (first-degree) relatives such as parents, brothers, and sisters is most concerning, but cancer in more distant relatives can also be important. Having 2 or more relatives with colorectal cancer is more concerning than having only 1 relative with it. It’s also more concerning if your relatives were diagnosed with cancer at a younger age than usual.
If you have a family history of colorectal cancer, talk with your doctor. You might benefit from speaking with a genetic counselor or other health professional who is trained in genetic counseling. They can review your family history to see how likely it is that you have a family cancer syndrome. The counselor can also help you decide if genetic testing is right for you. If you have testing and are found to have an abnormal gene, there might be steps you can take to help lower your risk of colorectal cancer, such as starting routine screening at an earlier age or even having surgery.
But before getting genetic testing, it’s important to know ahead of time what the results might or might not tell you about your risk. Genetic testing is not perfect. The tests might not provide clear answers for some people. This is why meeting with a genetic counselor or cancer genetics professional is important before deciding to be tested.
Genetic tests can help show if members of certain families have inherited a high risk of colorectal cancer due to inherited cancer syndromes, such as Lynch syndrome (also known as hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer, or HNPCC) or familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP).
In families known to have one of these inherited syndromes, family members who decide not to get tested are still usually advised to start routine screening for colorectal cancer at an early age, and to get screened more often.
Testing for Lynch syndrome (hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer, or HNPCC)
Lynch syndrome can greatly increase a person’s risk for colorectal cancer. The lifetime risk of colorectal cancer in people with this condition can range from about 10% to about 80%, depending on which gene mutation is causing the syndrome.
People with Lynch syndrome are also at increased risk for some other cancers, such as cancers of the uterus (endometrium), ovaries, stomach, small bowel, pancreas, kidneys, brain, ureters (tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder), and bile duct.
Who should be tested for Lynch syndrome?
There are two sets of guidelines that doctors often use to determine who might be likely to benefit from genetic counseling or testing: the Amsterdam criteria (based on family history) and the revised Bethesda guidelines (for people diagnosed with colorectal cancer).
Amsterdam criteria
Doctors have found that many families with Lynch syndrome tend to have certain characteristics, which are known as the Amsterdam criteria:
At least 3 relatives have a cancer linked with Lynch syndrome and:
- One is a first-degree relative (parent, brother or sister, or child) of the other 2 relatives.
- At least 2 successive generations are affected.
- At least 1 relative had their cancer when they were younger than age 50.
If all of these apply to your family, then you might want to seek genetic counseling. But even if your family history satisfies the Amsterdam criteria, it doesn’t always mean you have Lynch syndrome. And many families with Lynch syndrome do not meet the Amsterdam criteria.
Revised Bethesda guidelines
A second set of criteria, called the revised Bethesda guidelines, can be used to help decide whether a person with colorectal cancer should be tested for genetic changes that are seen with Lynch syndrome. (These changes are called microsatellite instability or MSI.) These criteria include at least one of the following:
- The person is younger than age 50 when diagnosed with colorectal or uterine cancer.
- The person has or had a second colorectal cancer or another cancer (endometrial, stomach, pancreas, small intestine, ovary, kidney, brain, ureters, or bile duct) linked to Lynch syndrome.
- The person is younger than age 60, and the cancer has certain characteristics seen with Lynch syndrome when it’s viewed under a microscope.
- The person has a first-degree relative (parent, sibling, or child) younger than age 50 who was diagnosed with colorectal cancer or another cancer linked to Lynch syndrome.
- The person has 2 or more first- or second-degree relatives (aunts, uncles, nieces, nephews, or grandparents) who had colorectal cancer or another Lynch syndrome-related cancer at any age.
If a person with colorectal cancer has any of the Bethesda criteria, testing for MSI may be advised. If MSI is found, the doctor typically will recommend that the patient be tested for Lynch syndrome-associated gene mutations.
It’s important to know that most people who meet the Bethesda criteria do not have Lynch syndrome, and that you can have Lynch syndrome and not meet any of the criteria listed. Not all doctors use the Bethesda guidelines to decide who should have MSI testing. In fact, it is now recommended that all colorectal cancers be tested for MMR deficiency or MSI. For anyone whose cancer has a high MSI level or is missing (deficient in) one of the MMR proteins, doctors will most likely recommend genetic testing for Lynch syndrome.
Even if you don’t have cancer, your doctor may suspect that Lynch syndrome runs in your family based on cases of colorectal cancer and other cancers associated with this syndrome in your relatives. In that case, your doctor might recommend genetic counseling to evaluate your risk.
If your family carries Lynch syndrome
In families known to carry a Lynch syndrome gene mutation, doctors recommend that family members who have tested positive for the mutation and those who have not been tested should start colonoscopy screening during their early 20s, or 2 to 5 years younger than the youngest person in the family with a diagnosis (whichever is earlier). Testing should be done every 1 or 2 years. This way polyps can be found and removed, and any cancers can be found at the earliest possible stage.
Testing for familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP)
Familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP) typically causes hundreds of polyps in the colon and rectum, which over time leads to colorectal cancer. For people with FAP, the lifetime risk of developing colorectal cancer is nearly 100%, and in most cases, it develops before age 50. Because FAP causes polyps and cancer earlier than the usual age colorectal cancer screening is started, it sometimes isn’t diagnosed until someone already has cancer.
Genetic counseling and testing are available for people who may have FAP based on their personal or family history. If changes in the gene that causes FAP are found in one person, doctors will recommend that their close relatives (brothers, sisters, and children) be tested. FAP may also be suspected if a person is found to have many polyps during a colonoscopy that was done because of problems like rectal bleeding or anemia.
People who test positive for the gene change linked to FAP should start being screened with colonoscopy at ages 10 to 15. Many doctors recommend that people with FAP have their colon removed when they’re in their 20s to prevent cancer from developing.
Testing for other inherited cancer syndromes
Certain other inherited syndromes, such as MUTYH-associated polyposis and Peutz-Jeghers syndrome, can also greatly increase a person’s risk of colorectal cancer. If you have certain criteria that suggest you might have one of the syndromes, your doctor might recommend genetic counseling and testing to look for the gene changes that cause them.
Can Colorectal Polyps and Cancer Be Found Early?
Colorectal cancer can often be found early with screening tests. Screening is the process of looking for cancer or precancer in people who have no symptoms of the disease. Colonoscopy, a colorectal cancer screening test, can even prevent colorectal cancer by finding polyps before they turn into cancer.
Screening for colorectal cancer
Colorectal cancer is a leading cause of cancer death in the United States. But the death rate (the number of deaths per 100,000 people per year) for colorectal cancer has been dropping for several decades.
Regular colorectal cancer screening is one of the most powerful tools against colorectal cancer.
Why is colorectal cancer screening important?
Finding colorectal cancer early
Screening can often find colorectal cancer early, when it’s small, hasn’t spread, and might be easier to treat.
Colorectal cancer prevention
Regular screening can even prevent colorectal cancer. A polyp can take as many as 10 to 15 years to develop into cancer. With a colonoscopy, doctors can find and remove polyps before they have the chance to turn into cancer.
Polyp removal during screening
One reason the death rate for colorectal cancer has improved is that colorectal polyps are more often found by screening and removed before they can develop into cancers.
Who should get screened?
The American Cancer Society recommends that people at average risk of colorectal cancer start regular screening at age 45. People at higher risk might need to start earlier.
Talk to your health care provider about which tests might be good options for you, and check with your insurance provider about your coverage.
Colorectal Cancer Screening Tests
Several tests can be used to screen for colorectal cancer. The most important thing is to get screened, no matter which test you choose. Colonoscopy, a screening test, can even prevent colorectal cancer by finding polyps before they turn into cancer.
Types of colorectal cancer screening tests
There are 3 main types of colorectal cancer screening tests :
- Stool-based tests: These tests check the stool (feces) for signs of colon or rectal cancer, such as small amounts of blood. These tests are not invasive and are easier to have done than visual exams, but they need to be done more often.
- Visual exams: These tests look inside the colon and rectum for any abnormal areas. They are done either with a scope (a tube-like instrument with a light and tiny video camera on the end) that is placed into the rectum, or with special imaging tests.
- Blood-based tests: These tests check a person's blood for signs of colorectal cancer.
These tests each have different benefits, limits, and harms (see the table below), and some of them might be better choices for you than others.
If you choose to be screened with a test other than colonoscopy, any abnormal test result should be followed up with a timely colonoscopy.
Some of these tests (especially colonoscopy) might also be used if you have symptoms that might be caused by other digestive diseases.
Stool-based tests
These tests look at the stool (feces) for possible signs of colorectal cancer or polyps, such as small amounts of blood or changes in the DNA or RNA from cells in the stool.
These tests can be done at home, and many people find they are more convenient and easier to have than visual tests like a colonoscopy. Stool-based tests, however, need to be done more often compared with visual exams.
If the result from a stool-based test is abnormal, you will still need a colonoscopy to see if you have colorectal cancer.
All stool-based tests look for occult (hidden) blood in the stool, and some look for other possible signs of cancer as well. The idea behind this is that blood vessels in larger colorectal polyps or in cancers are often fragile and easily damaged when stool passes through. The damaged vessels usually bleed into the colon or rectum, but only rarely is there enough blood for it to be seen by the naked eye in the stool.
Fecal immunochemical test (FIT)
The fecal immunochemical test (FIT) checks for hidden blood in the stool from the lower intestines. If you choose this test, it should be done every year, in the privacy of your home. Sometimes this test is called iFOBT or immunochemical fecal occult blood test.
Unlike the guaiac-based fecal occult blood test (gFOBT, see below), the FIT test does not have any drug or dietary restrictions because vitamins and foods do not affect the test results. Collecting the samples may also be easier. This test is also less likely to react to bleeding from the upper parts of the digestive tract, such as the stomach.
Collecting the samples: Your health care provider will give you the supplies you need for testing. Have all your supplies ready and in one place. Supplies typically include a test kit, test cards or tubes, long brushes or other collecting devices, waste bags, and a mailing envelope. The kit will give you detailed instructions on how to collect the samples. Be sure to follow the instructions that come with your kit. If you have any questions about how to use your kit, contact your health care provider’s office or clinic. Once you have collected the samples, return them (generally within 24 hours) as instructed.
If the test result is positive (that is, if hidden blood is found), a colonoscopy will be needed to investigate further. Although blood in the stool can be from cancer or polyps, it can also be from other causes, such as ulcers, hemorrhoids, or other conditions.
Guaiac-based fecal occult blood test (gFOBT)
The guaiac-based fecal occult blood test (gFOBT) finds occult (hidden) blood in the stool through a chemical reaction. It works differently from the fecal immunochemical test (FIT). Unlike the FIT, the gFOBT can’t tell if the blood is from the colon or from other parts of the digestive tract (such as the stomach).
If you choose this test, it should be done every year, in the privacy of your home. It checks more than one stool sample. The American Cancer Society recommends that only the highly sensitive versions of this test be used.
An FOBT done during a digital rectal exam in the doctor’s office is not enough for proper screening, because it is more likely to miss some colorectal cancers.
Before the test: Some foods or drugs can affect the results of this test, so you may be instructed to avoid the following before this test:
- Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), such as ibuprofen (Advil), naproxen (Aleve), or aspirin, for 7 days before testing. (They can cause bleeding, which can lead to a false-positive result.) Note: You should try to avoid taking NSAIDs for minor aches prior to the test. But if you take these medicines daily for heart problems or other conditions, don’t stop them for this test without talking to your health care provider first.
- Vitamin C (more than 250 mg a day) from either supplements or citrus fruits and juices for 3 to 7 days before testing. (This can affect the chemicals in the test and make the result negative, even if blood is present.)
- Red meats (beef, lamb, or liver) for 3 days before testing. (Components of blood in the meat may cause a positive test result.)
Some people who are given the test never do it or don’t return it because they worry that something they ate may affect the test. Even if you are concerned that something you ate may alter the test result, the most important thing is to get the test done.
Collecting the samples: You will get a kit with instructions from your health care provider’s office or clinic. The kit will explain how to take stool samples at home (usually samples from 3 separate bowel movements are smeared onto small paper cards). The kit is then returned to the doctor’s office or medical lab for testing.
To do this test, have all your supplies ready and in one place. Supplies typically include a test kit, test cards, either a brush or wooden applicator, and a mailing envelope. The kit will give you detailed instructions on how to collect the stool samples. Be sure to follow the instructions that come with your kit. If you have any questions about how to use your kit, contact your health care provider’s office or clinic. Once you have collected the samples, return them as instructed in the kit.
If the test result is positive (if hidden blood is found), a colonoscopy will be needed to find the reason for the bleeding.
Multitargeted stool DNA or RNA tests
Multitargeted stool DNA or RNA tests with fecal immunochemical testing (FIT) look for certain abnormal sections of DNA or RNA from cancer or polyp cells, as well as for occult (hidden) blood. Colorectal cancer or polyp cells often have DNA or RNA mutations (changes). Cells with these mutations often get into the stool, where tests may be able to find them.
- Cologuard tests for DNA changes and blood in the stool.
- ColoSense tests for RNA changes and blood in the stool.
If you choose one of these tests, it should be done every 3 years. They are done in the privacy of your own home. They test a full bowel movement. There are no drug or dietary restrictions before taking the test.
If the test result is positive (if it finds DNA changes, RNA changes, or blood), a colonoscopy will need to be done.
Visual exams
These tests look at the inside of the colon and rectum for any abnormal areas that might be cancer or polyps.
Colonoscopy
For this test, the doctor looks at the entire length of the colon and rectum with a colonoscope, a flexible tube with a light and small video camera on the end. It’s put in through the anus and into the rectum and colon. Special instruments can be passed through the colonoscope to biopsy (take samples) or remove any suspicious-looking areas such as polyps, if needed.
This test is different from a virtual colonoscopy (also known as CT colonography), which is a type of CT scan
CT colonography (virtual colonoscopy)
This test is an advanced type of computed tomography (CT) scan of the colon and rectum that can show abnormal areas, like polyps or cancer. Special computer programs use both x-rays and a CT scan to make 3-dimensional pictures of the inside of the colon and rectum. It does not require sedation (medicine to sleep) or a scope to be put into the rectum or colon. A small catheter is placed into your rectum to fill your colon with air or carbon dioxide. This allows for clearer CT pictures.
This test may be useful for some people who can’t have or don’t want to have an invasive test such as a colonoscopy. It can be done fairly quickly, but it requires the same type of bowel prep as a colonoscopy.
If polyps or other suspicious areas are seen on this test, a colonoscopy will still be needed to remove them or to explore the area fully.
Before the test: It’s important that the colon and rectum are emptied before this test to get the best images. You’ll probably be told to follow the same instructions to clean out the intestines as someone getting a colonoscopy.
During the test: This test is done in a special room with a CT scanner. It takes about 15 minutes. You’ll be asked to lie on a narrow table that’s part of the CT scanner, and will have a small, flexible tube put into your rectum. Air is pumped through the tube into the colon and rectum to expand them to provide better pictures. The table then slides into the CT scanner, and you’ll be asked to hold your breath for a few seconds while the scan is done. You’ll likely have 2 scans: 1 while you’re lying on your back and 1 while you’re on your stomach or side.
Possible side effects and complications: There are usually few side effects after this test. You may feel bloated or have cramps because of the air in the colon and rectum, but this should go away once the air passes from the body. There’s a very small risk that inflating the colon with air could injure or puncture it, but this risk is thought to be much less than with colonoscopy. Like other types of CT scans, this test also exposes you to a small amount of radiation.
Sigmoidoscopy
A sigmoidoscopy is like a colonoscopy except it doesn’t examine the entire colon. A sigmoidoscope, a flexible, lighted tube with a small video camera on the end, is inserted in through the anus, into the rectum, and then moved into the lower part of the colon. The sigmoidoscope is only about 2 feet (60 cm) long, so the doctor can only see the entire rectum and less than half of the colon. Images from the scope are seen on a video screen so the doctor can find and possibly remove any abnormal areas.
This test is not widely used as a screening tool for colorectal cancer in the United States. This is mainly because a sigmoidoscopy looks only at the lower portion (left side) of your colon, while at least 4 out of 10 colorectal cancers start in the upper portion (right side) of the colon.
Before the test: The colon and rectum should be emptied before this test to get the best pictures (known as bowel prep). You’ll probably need to take medicines such as enemas to clean out the intestines before the test, although this is likely to be less intense than the bowel prep needed before a colonoscopy.
During the test: A sigmoidoscopy usually takes about 10 to 20 minutes. Most people don’t need to be sedated for this test, but this might be an option you can discuss with your doctor. Sedation may make the test less uncomfortable, but you’ll need some time to recover from it, and you’ll need someone with you to take you home after the test.
You’ll probably be asked to lie on a table on your left side with your knees pulled up near your chest. Before the test, your doctor may put a gloved, lubricated finger into your rectum to examine it. The sigmoidoscope is first lubricated to make it easier to put into the rectum. Air is then pumped into the colon and rectum through the sigmoidoscope so the doctor can see the inner lining better. This might be uncomfortable, but it should not be painful. Be sure to let your doctor know if you feel pain during the procedure.
If you are not sedated during the procedure, you might feel pressure and slight cramping in your lower belly. To ease discomfort and the urge to have a bowel movement, it may help to breathe deeply and slowly through your mouth. You’ll feel better after the test once the air leaves your bowels.
If any polyps are found during the test, the doctor may remove them with a small instrument passed through the scope. The polyps will be looked at in the lab. If a pre-cancerous polyp (an adenoma) or colorectal cancer is found, you’ll need to have a colonoscopy later to look for polyps or cancer in the rest of the colon.
Possible complications and side effects: You might see a small amount of blood in your bowel movements for a day or 2 after the test. More serious bleeding and puncture of the colon or rectum are possible, but they are not common.
Blood-based tests
There are 2 FDA-approved, blood-based tests for colorectal screening in people who are at average risk:
- Shield
- ColoHealth (previously Epi proColon)
These tests look for possible signs of colorectal cancer or pre-cancerous polyps in a person's blood, although they are more accurate at detecting colorectal cancer than pre-cancerous polyps.
These tests are done in a clinic, where a sample of your blood will be collected and sent to a lab. In the lab, your blood will be tested for certain DNA changes that could suggest the presence of cancer or pre-cancer cells.
What are some of the benefits and limits of colorectal cancer screening tests?
Test |
Benefits |
Limits |
Blood-based test |
No direct risk to the colon No bowel prep No pre-test diet or medication changes needed |
Can miss many polyps and some cancers Will need to have blood drawn in clinic Medical insurance coverage may vary depending on which blood test is done Colonoscopy will be needed if results are abnormal |
Fecal immunochemical test (FIT) |
No direct risk to the colon No bowel prep No pre-test diet or medication changes needed Sampling done at home Inexpensive |
Can miss many polyps and some cancers Can have false-positive test results Needs to be done every year Colonoscopy will be needed if results are abnormal |
Guaiac-based fecal occult blood test (gFOBT) |
No direct risk to the colon No bowel prep Sampling done at home Inexpensive |
Can miss many polyps and some cancers Can have false-positive test results Pre-test changes in diet (and possibly medication) are needed Needs to be done every year Colonoscopy will be needed if results are abnormal |
Stool DNA test |
No direct risk to the colon No bowel prep No pre-test diet or medication changes needed Sampling done at home |
Can miss many polyps and some cancers Can have false-positive test results Should be done every 3 years Colonoscopy will be needed if results are abnormal |
Colonoscopy |
Can usually look at the entire colon Can biopsy and remove polyps Done every 10 years Can help find some other diseases |
Full bowel prep needed Costs more on a one-time basis than other forms of testing if a person is uninsured Sedation is usually needed, in which case you will need someone to drive you home You might miss a day of work Small risk of bleeding, bowel tears, or infection |
CT colonography (virtual colonoscopy) |
Fairly quick and safe Can usually see the entire colon Done every 5 years No sedation needed |
Can miss small polyps Full bowel prep needed Some false-positive test results Exposure to a small amount of radiation Can’t remove polyps during testing Colonoscopy will be needed if results are abnormal |
Sigmoidoscopy |
Fairly quick and safe Sedation usually not used Done every 5 years |
Not widely used as a screening test Bowel prep may still be requested Looks at only about a third of the colon Can miss small polyps and/or colorectal cancer Can’t remove all polyps May be some discomfort Very small risk of bleeding, infection, or bowel tear Colonoscopy will be needed if results are abnormal |
Colorectal Cancer Stages
After someone is diagnosed with colorectal cancer, doctors will try to figure out if it has spread, and if so, how far. This process is called staging. The stage of a cancer describes how much cancer is in the body. It helps determine how serious the cancer is and how best to treat it. Doctors also use a cancer's stage when talking about survival statistics.
The earliest stage of colorectal cancers is called stage 0 (a very early cancer), and then range from stages I (1) through IV (4). As a rule, the lower the number, the less the cancer has spread. A higher number, such as stage IV, means cancer has spread more. And within a stage, an earlier letter means a lower stage. Although each person’s cancer experience is unique, cancers with similar stages tend to have a similar outlook and are often treated in much the same way.
The staging system most often used for colorectal cancer is the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) TNM system, which is based on 3 key pieces of information:
- The extent (size) of the tumor (T): How far has the cancer grown into the wall of the colon or rectum? These layers, from the inner to the outer, include:
- The inner lining (mucosa), which is the layer in which nearly all colorectal cancers start. This includes a thin muscle layer (muscularis mucosa).
- The fibrous tissue beneath this muscle layer (submucosa)
- A thick muscle layer (muscularis propria)
- The thin, outermost layers of connective tissue (subserosa and serosa) that cover most of the colon but not the rectum
- The spread to nearby lymph nodes (N): Has the cancer spread to nearby lymph nodes?
- The spread (metastasis) to distant sites (M): Has the cancer spread to distant lymph nodes or distant organs such as the liver or lungs?
The system described below is the most recent AJCC system effective January 2018. It uses the pathologic stage (also called the surgical stage), which is determined by examining tissue removed during an operation. This is also known as surgical staging. This is likely to be more accurate than clinical staging, which takes into account the results of a physical exam, biopsies, and imaging tests, done before surgery.
Numbers or letters after T, N, and M provide more details about each of these factors. Higher numbers mean the cancer is more advanced. Once a person’s T, N, and M categories have been determined, this information is combined in a process called stage grouping to assign an overall stage.
Cancer staging can be complex, so ask your doctor to explain it to you in a way you understand.
AJCC Stage |
Stage grouping |
Stage description* |
0 |
Tis N0 M0 |
The cancer is in its earliest stage. This stage is also known as carcinoma in situ or intramucosal carcinoma (Tis). It has not grown beyond the inner layer (muscularis mucosa) of the colon or rectum. |
I |
T1 or T2 N0 M0 |
The cancer has grown through the muscularis mucosa into the submucosa (T1), and it may also have grown into the muscularis propria (T2). It has not spread to nearby lymph nodes (N0) or to distant sites (M0). |
IIA |
T3 N0 M0 |
The cancer has grown into the outermost layers of the colon or rectum but has not gone through them (T3). It has not reached nearby organs. It has not spread to nearby lymph nodes (N0) or to distant sites (M0). |
IIB |
T4a N0 M0 |
The cancer has grown through the wall of the colon or rectum but has not grown into other nearby tissues or organs (T4a). It has not yet spread to nearby lymph nodes (N0) or to distant sites (M0). |
IIC |
T4b N0 M0 |
The cancer has grown through the wall of the colon or rectum and is attached to or has grown into other nearby tissues or organs (T4b). It has not yet spread to nearby lymph nodes (N0) or to distant sites (M0). |
IIIA
|
T1 or T2 N1/N1c M0 |
The cancer has grown through the muscularis mucosa into the submucosa (T1), and it may also have grown into the muscularis propria (T2). It has spread to 1 to 3 nearby lymph nodes (N1) or into areas of fat near the lymph nodes but not the nodes themselves (N1c). It has not spread to distant sites (M0). |
OR |
||
T1 N2a M0 |
The cancer has grown through the muscularis mucosa into the submucosa (T1). It has spread to 4 to 6 nearby lymph nodes (N2a). It has not spread to distant sites (M0). |
|
IIIB
|
T3 or T4a N1/N1c M0 |
The cancer has grown into the outermost layers of the colon or rectum (T3) or through the wall of the colon or rectum (including the visceral peritoneum) (T4a) but has not reached nearby organs. It has spread to 1 to 3 nearby lymph nodes (N1a or N1b) or into areas of fat near the lymph nodes but not the nodes themselves (N1c). It has not spread to distant sites (M0). |
OR |
||
T2 or T3 N2a M0 |
The cancer has grown into the muscularis propria (T2) or into the outermost layers of the colon or rectum (T3). It has spread to 4 to 6 nearby lymph nodes (N2a). It has not spread to distant sites (M0). |
|
OR |
||
T1 or T2 N2b M0 |
The cancer has grown through the muscularis mucosa into the submucosa (T1), and it might also have grown into the muscularis propria (T2). It has spread to 7 or more nearby lymph nodes (N2b). It has not spread to distant sites (M0). |
|
IIIC
|
T4a N2a M0 |
The cancer has grown through the wall of the colon or rectum (including the visceral peritoneum) but has not reached nearby organs (T4a). It has spread to 4 to 6 nearby lymph nodes (N2a). It has not spread to distant sites (M0). |
OR |
||
T3 or T4a N2b M0 |
The cancer has grown into the outermost layers of the colon or rectum (T3) or through the wall of the colon or rectum (including the visceral peritoneum) (T4a) but has not reached nearby organs. It has spread to 7 or more nearby lymph nodes (N2b). It has not spread to distant sites (M0). |
|
OR |
||
T4b N1 or N2 M0 |
The cancer has grown through the wall of the colon or rectum and is attached to or has grown into other nearby tissues or organs (T4b). It has spread to at least 1 nearby lymph node or into areas of fat near the lymph nodes (N1 or N2). It has not spread to distant sites (M0). |
|
IVA |
Any T Any N M1a |
The cancer may or may not have grown through the wall of the colon or rectum (Any T). It might or might not have spread to nearby lymph nodes. (Any N). It has spread to 1 distant organ (such as the liver or lung) or distant set of lymph nodes, but not to distant parts of the peritoneum (the lining of the abdominal cavity) (M1a). |
IVB |
Any T Any N M1b |
The cancer might or might not have grown through the wall of the colon or rectum (Any T). It might or might not have spread to nearby lymph nodes (Any N). It has spread to more than 1 distant organ (such as the liver or lung) or distant set of lymph nodes, but not to distant parts of the peritoneum (the lining of the abdominal cavity) (M1b). |
IVC |
Any T Any N M1c |
The cancer might or might not have grown through the wall of the colon or rectum (Any T). It might or might not have spread to nearby lymph nodes (Any N). It has spread to distant parts of the peritoneum (the lining of the abdominal cavity), and may or may not have spread to distant organs or lymph nodes (M1c). |
* The following additional categories are not listed in the table above:
- TX: Main tumor cannot be assessed due to lack of information.
- T0: No evidence of a primary tumor.
- NX: Regional lymph nodes cannot be assessed due to lack of information.
Survival Rates for Colorectal Cancer
Survival rates can give you an idea of what percentage of people with the same type and stage of cancer are still alive a certain amount of time (usually 5 years) after they were diagnosed. They can’t tell you how long you will live, but they may help give you a better understanding of how likely it is that your treatment will be successful.
Keep in mind that survival rates are estimates and are often based on previous outcomes of large numbers of people who had a specific cancer, but they can’t predict what will happen in any particular person’s case. These statistics can be confusing and may lead you to have more questions. Ask your doctor, who is familiar with your situation, how these numbers may apply to you.
What is a 5-year relative survival rate?
A relative survival rate compares people with the same type and stage of cancer to people in the overall population. For example, if the 5-year relative survival rate for a specific stage of colon or rectal cancer is 80%, it means that people who have that cancer are, on average, about 80% as likely as people who don’t have that cancer to live for at least 5 years after being diagnosed.
Where do these numbers come from?
The American Cancer Society relies on information from the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) database, maintained by the National Cancer Institute (NCI), to provide survival statistics for different types of cancer.
The SEER database tracks 5-year relative survival rates for colon and rectal cancer in the United States, based on how far the cancer has spread. However, the SEER database does not group cancers by AJCC TNM stages (stage 1, stage 2, stage 3, etc.). Instead, it groups cancers into localized, regional, and distant stages:
- Localized: There is no sign that the cancer has spread outside of the colon or rectum.
- Regional: The cancer has spread outside the colon or rectum to nearby structures or lymph nodes.
- Distant: The cancer has spread to distant parts of the body, such as the liver, lungs, or distant lymph nodes.
5-year relative survival rates for colon cancer
These numbers are based on people diagnosed with cancers of the colon between 2014 and 2020.
SEER stage |
5-year relative survival rate |
Localized |
91% |
Regional |
73% |
Distant |
13% |
All SEER stages combined |
63% |
5-year relative survival rates for rectal cancer
These numbers are based on people diagnosed with cancers of the rectum between 2014 and 2020.
SEER stage |
5-year relative survival rate |
Localized |
90% |
Regional |
74% |
Distant |
18% |
All SEER stages combined |
67% |
Understanding the numbers
- These numbers apply only to the stage of the cancer when it is first diagnosed. They do not apply later on if the cancer grows, spreads, or comes back after treatment.
- These numbers don’t take everything into account. Survival rates are grouped based on how far the cancer has spread, but your age and overall health, whether the cancer started on the left or right side of the colon, if the cancer cells have certain gene or protein changes, how well the cancer responds to treatment, and other factors can also affect your outlook.
- People now being diagnosed with colon or rectal cancer may have a better outlook than these numbers show. Treatments improve over time, and these numbers are based on people who were diagnosed and treated at least 5 years earlier.
When you’re told you have colorectal cancer
The cancer care team wants to answer all of your questions, so that you can make informed treatment and life decisions. For instance, consider these questions:
- Where is the cancer located?
- Has the cancer spread beyond where it started?
- What is the cancer’s stage, and what does that mean?
- Will I need other tests before we can decide on treatment?
- Should I see a genetic counselor to guide future screening for myself and my family?
- Has my cancer been checked for gene changes that could help you choose my treatment options?
- Do I need to see any other doctors or health professionals?
- If I’m concerned about the costs and insurance coverage for my diagnosis and treatment, who can help me?
When deciding on a treatment plan
- What are my treatment options?
- If surgery is part of my treatment, will I need an ostomy? If so, will it be temporary or permanent? Who will teach me how to care for it?
- What do you recommend and why?
- How much experience do you have treating this type of cancer?
- Should I get a second opinion? How do I do that? Can you recommend someone?
- What would the goal of the treatment be?
- How quickly do we need to decide on treatment?
- What should I do to be ready for treatment?
- How long will treatment last? What will it be like? Where will it be done?
- What risks or side effects are there to the treatments you suggest? Are there things I can do to reduce these side effects?
- If considering having children in the future, does this treatment affect my fertility and family planning?
- How might treatment affect my daily activities? Can I still work full time?
- What are the chances that I can be cured of this cancer with these treatment options?
- What would my options be if the treatment doesn’t work or if the cancer comes back (recurs) after treatment?
- What if I have transportation problems getting to and from treatment?
During treatment
Once treatment begins, you’ll need to know what to expect and what to look for. Not all of these questions may apply to you, but asking the ones that do may be helpful.
- How will I know if the treatment is working?
- Is there anything I can do to help manage side effects?
- What symptoms or side effects should I tell you about right away?
- How can I reach you on nights, holidays, or weekends?
- Do I need to change what I eat during treatment?
- Are there any limits on what I can do?
- Can I exercise during treatment? If so, what kind should I do, and how often?
- Can you suggest a mental health professional I can see if I start to feel overwhelmed, depressed, or distressed?
- What if I need social support during treatment because my family lives far away?
After treatment
- Do I need a special diet after treatment?
- Are there any limits on what I can do?
- What symptoms should I watch for?
- What kind of exercise should I do now?
- What type of follow-up will I need after treatment?
- How often will I need to have follow-up exams and imaging tests?
- When should my next colonoscopy be done?
- Will I need any blood tests?
- How will we know if the cancer has come back? What should I watch for?
- What will my options be if the cancer comes back?
Along with these sample questions, be sure to write down some of your own.
Local treatments
Local treatments treat the tumor without affecting the rest of the body. These treatments are more likely to be useful for earlier stage cancers (smaller cancers that haven't spread), but they might also be used in some other situations. Types of local treatments used for colorectal cancer include:
- Surgery for Colon Cancer
- Surgery for Rectal Cancer
- Ablation and Embolization for Colorectal Cancer
- Radiation Therapy for Colorectal Cancer
Systemic treatments
Colorectal cancer can also be treated using drugs, which can be given by mouth or directly into the bloodstream. These are called systemic treatments because they can reach cancer cells throughout almost all the body. Depending on the type of colorectal cancer, different types of drugs might be used, such as:
- Chemotherapy for Colorectal Cancer
- Targeted Therapy Drugs for Colorectal Cancer
- Immunotherapy for Colorectal Cancer
Common treatment approaches
Depending on the stage of the cancer and other factors, different types of treatment may be combined at the same time or used after one another.
- Treatment of Colon Cancer, by Stage
- Treatment of Rectal Cancer, by Stage
Who treats colorectal cancer?
Based on your treatment options, you might have different types of doctors on your treatment team. These doctors could include:
- A gastroenterologist: a doctor who treats disorders of the gastrointestinal (GI or digestive) tract
- A surgical oncologist (oncologic surgeon): a doctor who uses surgery to treat cancer
- A colorectal surgeon: a doctor who uses surgery to treat diseases of the colon and rectum
- A radiation oncologist: a doctor who treats cancer with radiation therapy
- A medical oncologist: a doctor who treats cancer with medicines such as chemotherapy or targeted therapy
You might have many other specialists on your treatment team as well, including physician assistants (PAs), nurse practitioners (NPs), nurses, psychologists, nutritionists, social workers, and other health professionals.
Thinking about taking part in a clinical trial
Clinical trials are carefully controlled research studies that are done to get a closer look at promising new treatments or procedures. Clinical trials are one way to get state-of-the-art cancer treatment. In some cases they may be the only way to get access to newer treatments. They are also the best way for doctors to learn better methods to treat cancer.
If you would like to learn more about clinical trials that might be right for you, start by asking your doctor if your clinic or hospital conducts clinical trials.
Considering complementary, integrative, and alternative methods
You may hear about alternative or complementary methods to relieve symptoms or treat your cancer that your doctors haven’t mentioned. These methods can include vitamins, herbs, and special diets, or other methods such as acupuncture or massage, to name a few.
Complementary methods are treatments that are used along with your regular medical care. Alternative treatments are used instead of standard medical treatment. Although some of these methods might be helpful in relieving symptoms or helping you feel better, many have not been proven to work. Some might even be harmful. For example, some supplements might interfere with chemotherapy.
Be sure to talk to your cancer care team about any method you are thinking about using. They can help you learn what is known (or not known) about the method, which can help you make an informed decision.